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Studio render of a vertical stack of four frosted acrylic layers from a network card at the base to a small application block at the top, an Ethernet cable leaving the base

Topic · 2 min read

Network adapters and protocol layers

The path from an application to a network passes through several interfaces. Hardware transmission, packet handling, address configuration, and higher-level protocols each contribute different responsibilities.

The bigger picture

An application normally uses operating-system networking facilities rather than controlling the adapter directly. The stack organizes data into protocol units and routes them toward an appropriate interface. The adapter-specific path then arranges transfers over the local medium. Similar application behavior can therefore use quite different underlying equipment.

A physical interface is not the only kind of interface a system can expose. Virtual networking, tunnels, and other software arrangements can add entries without adding a socket or radio. Use the concepts below to interpret the role of an entry instead of assuming every adapter name identifies a separate physical card. Observations at one layer need context before they can explain the behavior of the entire path.

Reading map: Network adapters and protocol layersFirst 1 topics in reading order: The bigger picture. Each topic links to its section or page.INSIDE THIS PAGENetwork adapters and protocol layers1The bigger picture2 paragraphs

Network & Wi-Fi

Note these before you change anything

Useful facts to have to hand while reading about network adapters and protocol layers.

  • Adapter name and driver version
  • Whether other devices on the same network work
  • IP configuration shown in the system's network details
  • Power-saving settings on the adapter

Network & Wi-Fi: Sending data (simplified; replies return the same way)

  1. Applicationopens a connection
  2. Network stackTCP/IP and name lookup
  3. Adapter driverWi-Fi or Ethernet
  4. Network adapterradio or port
  5. Routerand the wider network
Conceptual schematic of a selected path, not every request. Shown in one direction; the reverse direction uses related layers. Real systems add services, filter drivers and firmware not shown. Highlighted: the layer a driver change affects.

Pages in Network adapters and protocol layers

Thumbnail for Network interface layers in Windows: a network card seated in a machined aluminium middle, set beside a vertical stack of four frosted acrylic (Network adapters and protocol layers)Reference · 2 min read

Network interface layers in Windows

Windows networking uses defined interfaces between protocol components and the software that manages adapters. NDIS is an important part of this…

Thumbnail for Packets, frames and the local link: small machined blocks being nested inside larger frosted acrylic, set beside a vertical stack of four frosted acrylic (Network adapters and protocol layers)Reference · 2 min read

Packets, frames and the local link

Network data is organized into units that different layers understand. An IP packet and a link-layer frame are related containers, but they describe…

Thumbnail for Hardware addresses and IP addresses: a network card with an etched fixed metal tag, set beside a vertical stack of four frosted acrylic (Network adapters and protocol layers)Reference · 2 min read

Hardware addresses and IP addresses

A hardware address identifies an interface within a link-layer context, while an IP address supports communication at the network layer. The two serve…

Thumbnail for Network offloads and shared work: a network card with small machined work blocks resting, set beside a vertical stack of four frosted acrylic (Network adapters and protocol layers)Reference · 2 min read

Network offloads and shared work

A network offload moves a supported task from general operating-system processing into adapter hardware or another specialized path. The purpose is to…

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